Refrences
“The Jain Ägams” by Shri Dalsukh Malvania & Translated by Dr. Nagin Shah“Jain Ägam Literature” compiled
by Pravin K. Shah, Jain Study Center of NC (Raleigh)
|
Jain Agam Literature |
| Introduction |
|
In most of the religions, there is one main scripture book. Hinduism has Gita and 4 Vedas, Christians have the Bible, Muslims have Koran, Persians have Avesta, and Sikhs have Guru Granth Sahib, and Buddhists have 3 Pitikäs. Likewise, Jains also have their own scriptures called Ägams, also called the Jain Shrut. Jains are people of books, they do not have one main scripture book but they have many. The teachings by
an omniscient Lord Tirthankar to his enlighten principal disciples,
called Ganadhars was first composed in fourteen Purvas and then in
twelve Ang-Pravishtha-Ägams (an `Ang' being a `limb') by Ganadhars
themselves. All Purvas are included in one part of the twelfth Ang,
called Drastiväd. It is
said one Jain scripture that, "Having climbed the tree of perfect
knowledge, an omniscient Lord Tirthankar showers flowers of knowledge to
enlighten principal disciples, called Ganadhars.
They collected all these flowers in the cloth of the intellect,
and have interwoven them into the garland of Dvädsangi" (Dvädsangi
means twelve Ang-Pravishtha-Ägams). The composition
of scripture has a specific purpose of showing the listener the path of
everlasting happiness and liberation.
The Ägam Sutras teach the eternal truth about conduct,
equanimity, universal affection and friendship, and the eternal truths
on thinking, namely, the principle of relativity, principle of
non-one-sided-ness and many spiritual things including great reverence
for all forms of life, soul, karma, universe, strict codes of
asceticism, rules for householders, compassion, nonviolence,
non-possessiveness. In addition to
the twelve Ang-pravishtha works composed by the Ganadhars, other
canonical literature (Ang-bähya-Ägams) which composed by Stathviras or
elder monks are also included as part of the Jain Ägams. The Jain Ägams
consisted of 1) 14 Purvas, 2) 12 Ang-pravishtha-Ägams and 3) Ang-bähya-Ägams
(34 for Shwetämbar Murtipujak, 21 for Shwetämbar Sthanakväsi and 14
for Digambar). Consistent with
Shwetämbar murtipujak beliefs, there are three Ägam temples which have
45 Ägams engraved either on wall or on copper plate. They are in
Palitana, Surat and Shankheswar. There are several places (Jnana-Mandirs)
like Amadavad, Patan, Surat, Khambhat, Jesalmer, Pindvada, Nehsana,
Ratalam, Ahor, Tharad, Guda, Surendranagar where all Ägams are
available. Jains believe
that Ang-Pravishtha-Ägams were at all times in the past, are in the
present, and will be at all times in the future. They are eternal, firm,
permanent, non-destructive, non-decaying and everlasting. For some time after Lord Mahavir's nirvän, the Jain Shramans did not pen down their Ägams in the book form, but preserved them by memorizing them. They considered the possessing books will constitute violation of the vow of non-attachment and non-possessions. But then came the time, they totally changed their attitude towards the possession of books because there was a fear of the destruction of the Jain Shrut. Whatever wealth of the Ägam which was still extant at that time remained protected and preserved. |
| Recensions |
|
With a view to
establish order in the preaching of Lord Mahavir, Jain Acharyas
assembled three times and prepared three recensions of the preachings.
Whenever the Acharyas saw that the Shrut was waning and that there was
disorderliness into it, they assembled and established order in it. No
documentation occurred during the first recension but during the second
and third conferences most of the scriptures, commentaries, and other
works were documented.
Around 1400 to 1600 AD, the Shwetämbar sect also divided into three sub-sects known as Shwetämbar Murtipujak, Sthanakväsi, and Terapanthi. Differences also exist among all three Shwetämbar Jain sects in their acceptance of the validity and interpretations of the documented Jain scriptures (Ägam Sutras) and other literature. 1) The First Recension done in Pataliputra The Order of the Jain monks assembled in Patliputra about 160 years after Lord Mahavir's death, and also after a terrible famine which lasted for many years. At that time, the middle region of the country (Madhyadesh) was under the sway of this severe famine, causing the dispersion of Jain monks in various directions. Naturally, the Anga Ägams fell into a bad state.
The monks assembled after the famine, and asked one another what they could recollect and thus collected and arranged eleven of twelve Angs. But they found that nobody recollected the entire Drastiväd, the twelfth Ang. At that time Acharya Bhadrabahu alone possessed the knowledge of Drastiväd, but he had taken recourse to the yogic path of a special sort and was in Nepal. So the Jain community requested Acharya Sthulibhadra with many other monks to go to Bhadrabahu to learn the text of the Drashtiväd from him. The Drastiväd, being the twelfth Ang Ägam book, contained fourteen Purva-Sutras. Of those monks, Sthulibhadra alone was successful in acquiring the knowledge of it. After acquiring the knowledge of ten Purvas, he misused the miraculous power earned through their use. When Bhadrabahu came to know this, he stopped giving lessons to Sthulibhadra. After beseeching by Sthulibhadra, he agreed to teach him the remaining four Purvas, but he forbid Sthulibhadra to teach these four Purvas to others. As a consequence
of this, there existed in the Order of Jain monks, the knowledge of 14
Purvas up to Sthulibhadra. After
his death, the Order possessed the knowledge of eleven Angs and only ten
Purvas. Sthulibhadra's death occurred 215 years after Lord Mahavir's
Nirvän. In short, of the twelve Angs (Ang-pravishtha) composed by the Ganadhars, eleven Angs bereft of the four Purvas were recovered by the Order assembled at the first council. 2) The Mathuri Vachan (Recension done in Mathura) & The Valabhi Vachan (Recension in Valabhi) After this
twelve year long famine, the monks assembled in Mathura under the
leadership of Arya Skandil and collected and arranged the Kalik Shrut on
the basis of what they could recall and recite.
Since this vachan was done in Mathura, it is called Mathuri
Vachan. This happened about
830 years after Lord Mahavir's nirvän. Synchronous with the council at Mathura, Acharya Nagarjun convened a council of monks at Valabhi (Saurastra) and tried to collect and arrange the Ägams. Then they were written down and the recension was prepared after having corrected lengthy portions according to the context. The Vachan is called the Nagarjun Vachan as well. 3) The Penning down by Devardhigani Then a council
of monks presided over by Kshama-Shraman Devardhi-gani was held at
Valabhi (Saurastra), 150 years after the councils presided over by
Skandil and Nagarjun at Mathura and Valabhi respectively.
It was decided to document all available Prakirna Sutras, and
preserve the Ang and other Sutras that were documented in the two former
councils. Also it was to bring uniformity in Sutras as far as possible
by resolving the differences in Sutras.
Of course, the most important differences were documented in
Churnis and Tikas. This task was
accomplished 980 years after Lord Mahavir's Nirvän.
After that event, the text of most of the Ägam works available
at present was settled at this time. |
| List, Subject-matter & Status of Jain Ägam |
|
Both the Shwetämbars and the Digambars unanimously agree on the point that the Purva works have become extinct. There are several works which refer to the Purvas. The Satkhand-Ägam and the Kashaya-prabhrit have been composed by the Digambar Acharyas on the basis of the Purva works. Many literature recognized as Ägams by the Shwetämbars are also having their source in the Purvas. There are fourteen purvas and they are huge. First one is written by the volume of the ink that is equivalent to the size of one elephant. Second one is two times larger, and third one is two times larger than second one and so on. Here is the list and its subject matter:
Ang-pravishtha-Ägams There is no difference of opinion among the sects of the Jains, on the point that the basic source of the entire Jain literature is a group of twelve Anga works composed by the Ganadhars. The Digambars maintain that within a period of time after the Nirvän of Tirthankar Mahavir, the entire Ägam preached by him became extinct. But the Shwetämbars tried to preserve the Ägams, having compiled them, they found many things which have come down from ancient Acharyas through oral tradition are in the Jain Ägam.
|
|
List
and subject-matter of Ang-pravishtha-Ägams are as follows: 1.
Ächäräng Sutra (Äyäräng): This Ägam describes the conduct and
behavior of ascetic life. It also describes the penance of Lord Mahavir.
This is the oldest Ägam from a linguistic point of view. 2.
Sutrakratang Sutra (Suyagdäng): This Ägam describes nonviolence, Jain
metaphysics, and the refutation of other religious theories such as
Kriyavada, Akriyavada, Ajnanavada, and Vinayavada. 3.
Sthänänga Sutra (Thänäng): This Ägam defines and catalogues the
main substances of the Jain metaphysics. 4. Samaväyänga Sutra: This Ägam defines and catalogues the main substances of the Jain religion from a different perspective than the Sthänänga Sutra. 5.
Vyäkhyä Prajnapti or Bhagavati Sutra (Viyah Pannati): This Ägam
explains the subtle knowledge of soul, matter, and other related
subjects. Thirty-six
thousands (36000) questions and answers are presented in discussion
form. It is the largest of
the eleven Ang-pravishtha-Ägams. 6.
Jnätä Dharma Kathänga Sutra (Nayadhammakahao): This Ägam explains
Jain principles through examples and stories. This text is very useful
in understanding the mode of Lord Mahavir's religious preaching. 7.
Upäsaka Dashänga Sutra (Uvasagdasao): This Ägam explains the code of
conduct of the ten lay followers (Shrävaks) of Lord Mahavir.
This Ägam is very useful for understanding the code and conduct
of ordinary people (Shrävaka Dharma) in the Jain religion. 8.
Antahkradashänga Sutra (Anatagaddasao): This Ägam tells the stories of
ten sacred monks attaining liberation (Moksha) by destroying their
karmas. 9.
Anuttaroupa Pätika Dashanga Sutra (Anuttarov Vaiya Dasao):
This Ägam contains the stories of additional ten sacred monks
who attained the top-most heaven, known as Anuttara heaven. 10.
Prashna Vyäkrana Sutra (Panha Vagarnai): This Ägam describes
the five great vows (mahavratas) and the five worst sins defined in the
Jain religion. 11.
Vipäka Sutra (Vivagsuyam): This Ägam explains the results of
good and bad karmas through several stories. 12. Drastiväd Sutra: The twelfth Ang-pravishtha-Ägam Drastiväd is considered lost by all Jain Sects. The description, which is found in the other Jain Sutras relating to Drashtivada, indicates that this Ang-pravishtha-Ägam was the largest of all Ägam Sutras. It was classified in five parts; (l) Parikarma (2) Sutra (3) Purvagata (4) Pratham-anuyoga and (5) Chulikä. The third part, Purvagata contained 14 Purvas. They contain the Jain religion's endless treasure of knowledge on every subject. In addition to
the twelve Anga works composed by the Ganadhars, other canonical
literature (Anga-bähya) which composed by Stathviras or elder monks are
also included as part of the Jain Ägams. Such Sthavirs are of two
types; Shrut-kevalis (one who comprehends the entire Shrut-14 Purvas)
and Das-purvis (one who has acquired knowledge of the ten Purvas).
Shrut-kevalis, are those who are especially well versed in the
meaning and essence of the Ägams. The Digambar
sect believes that all Ang-bähya-Ägams were also gradually lost
starting about two hundred years after Lord Mahavir's Nirvän.
Hence in their opinion, the complete Jain Ägam literature is
lost within few hundred years after Lord Mahavir's nirvän. The Digambars have accepted 14 works, the Shwetämbars 34 works, and the Sthanakaväsis 21 works as Ang-bähya-Ägams.
Per
Shwetämbar tradition, Ang‑bähya‑Ägams are consisted of Upäng-sutras,
Ched-sutras, Mool-sutras, Chulikä-sutras and Prakirna-sutras. Upäng-sutras: The
scriptures, which provide further explanation of Ang-pravishtha-Ägams,
are called Upäng-Ägams. The scriptures, which were created in relation
to Ang-pravishtha-Ägams, are called Upäng-Ägams.
They provide further explanation of Ang-pravishtha-Ägams. 1.
Aupapätika Sutra (Ovavaiya): This Ägam describes the splendid
procession (view) of King Konika when he visited Lord Mahavir.
It also explains how a person can attain heaven in the next life. 2.
Rajaprashniya Sutra (Raya Pasen Ijja): This Ägam describes the story of
Monk Keshi. Monk Keshi was
the Ganadhara of Lord Parshvanath.
He removed the doubts of King Pradeshi regarding the existence
and attributes of the soul. Monk
Keshi made the king a follower of the Jain religion.
After his death, the king was born in heaven as a deva.
He appeared from heaven to shower Lord Mahavir with unprecedented
pomp and splendor. The
thirty‑two dramas (plays) described in this Ägam throw light upon
the ancient dramatic art of India. 3.
Jiväbhigama Sutra: This Ägam describes the universe and the subtle
description of all living beings (souls) of the universe.
It gives very important information to the scholars of biology
and botany. 4.
Prajnäpanä Sutra (Pannavana): This Ägam describes the form and
attributes of souls from a different perspective. 5.
Suryaprajnäpti Sutra (Surya Pannti): This Ägam describes the Sun, the
planets and the associated mathematics regarding their motion. 6.
Chandraprajnäpti Sutra: This Ägam describes the Moon, the planets and
the associated, mathematics regarding their motion.
Both of these Upängas, the Chandra Prajnapti and Surya
Prajnapati, are very important in understanding the astrology of olden
times. 7.
Jambudveepaprajnäpti Sutra: This Ägam provides a description of
Jambudveepa. Jambudeepa is
a big island located in the center of the middle world as explained in
the Jain geography. It also
provides information on ancient kings. 8.
Nirayärvali Sutra: This Ägam describes the story of ten bother
princes. All ten princes
fought with King Chetaka of Vaishali in cooperation with king Konika.
King Chetaka was the half brother of the ten princes.
In the end all ten princes went to hell after dying in war. 9.
Kalpävatansikä Sutra (Kappavadamsiao): This Ägam describes the story
of King Konika's children. They
did not fight with King Chetaka in the war.
They renounced the world and became monks.
After their death, they went to heaven. 10.
Pushpikä Sutra (Puspiao): This Ägam describes the previous
lives of certain devas (angels) who worshiped Lord Mahavir. 11.
Pushpa Chulikä Sutra: This Ägam describes stories similar to
those in the Pushpika. 12. Vrashnidashä Sutra (Vanhidasao): This Ägam explains how Lord Neminath convinced ten kings in the Vrashni region to follow the Jain religion. Chhed
Sutras: The
subject matter described in the Chhed‑sutras is for ascetics and
not for lay people. It
provides the rule of conduct, punishment, and repentance for ascetics.
It also explains how they can repent for their sins and mistakes. 1.
Nisheetha Sutra (Nisiha): This Ägam explains the procedure of
repentance (Prayashchitta) in the form of punishment for the monks and
nuns who have violated the rules of ascetics. 2.
Brahat Kalpa Sutra: This Ägam explains which of the ten kinds of
repentance (Prayashchittas) is appropriate for a particular wrongdoing
done by monks and nuns. It
also defines the acceptable conduct of monks and nuns. 3. Vyavahära Sutra*: This Ägam describes the system of confession for monks and nuns who fall from proper conduct. It explains the qualifications of the listening monk or nun and with what sort of feeling the confession should be made. It also explains what sort of repentance (Prayashchitta) the monk should perform. There are several other indications of the limits of ascetic life. 4.
Dashä Shruta Skandha Sutra (Ächärdashä): There are ten chapters in
this Sutra. It contains
information relating to 20 places of Asamadhi, 21 major faults bringing
weakness in conduct, 33 Ashatanas of Guru, 8 Sampadas of Acharyas and
their kinds, 10 places of Chitta Samadhi, 11 Pratimas of layperson,
Pratimas of ascetics (monks and nuns), KALPASUTRA ‑ (recited
during the Paryushanas), 30 places of bondage of Mohniya karma and
9 Nida nas (Niyane) 5.
Panch Kalpa Sutra *: This sutra explains the daily rituals the monks and
nuns have to perform. Only scattered chapters of this Ägam are now
available. However, the
commentaries (Bhashya and Churni) written about this Ägam by some elder
monks are available. 6. Mahanisheetha Sutra: This Ägam explains the process of confession and repentance (Prayashchitta) for monks and nuns. It explains the magnitude of pain one has to suffer if he or she breaks the fourth vow (chastity). It also describes and explains the conduct of good and bad monks. Mool-sutras The
scriptures, which are essential for monks and nuns to study in the early
stages of their ascetic life, are called Mool‑sutras. 1.
Ävashyaka Sutra: The daily rituals or routines, which it is necessary
to perform during the day and night for the purification of soul, are
called Avashyaka. A
description of the six routines (Ävashyakas) is explained in this Ägam.
The six routines are; Samayika, Chaturvinshatistava, Vandanaka,
Pratikramana, Kayotsarga, and Pratyakhyana. 2.
Dasha Vaikalika Sutra: This Ägam briefly describes and explains the
conduct of ascetic life. 3.
Uttarädhyayana Sutra: This Ägam has the same place in Jain literature
as the Dhammapada in Buddhism and the Geeta in the Hindu religion.
It contains preaching regarding religious principles and
practices, and many stories, dialogues, and examples based on such
principles and practices. 4.
Ogha Niryukti or Pinda Niryukti Sutra*: This Ägam explains certain
rules and procedures for monks with respect to travelling, staying, and
accepting food and other necessities from lay people. Chulikä
sutras The
scriptures, which enhance or decorate the meaning of Ang-pravishtha-Ägams
are known as Chulikä‑sutras or some times known as Sutras. 1.
Nandi Sutra: This Ägam contains an elaborate description of
Tirthankaras, Ganadharas, and five types of Knowledge (Jnan); Mati,
Shrut, Avadhi, Manaparyay, and Keval-Jnan. 2.
Anuyogadvära Sutra: This Ägam provides the description of many rights
regarding the mode of preaching. Prakirna
sutras The
scriptures, which describe independent or miscellaneous subjects of the
Jain religion, are known as Prakirna sutra. 1.
Chatuh Sharana *:This Ägam contains prayers to the four benevolent
beings: a) Arihant
‑ God in the form of perfect human being, b) Siddha ‑
God in the form of pure consciousness, c) Sadhu - Ascetics and d) Dharma
Religion 2.
Ätur Pratyäkhyäna (Äyur‑Pachakhäna)*: This Ägam explains
differences in the death of children, youths, adults, and old people.
It also describes the types of vows a wise person should take
during various states of illness and how he should beg the pardon of all
living beings in the universe. 3.
Bhakti Parijnä (Bhatta‑parinna)*: This Ägam describes the
process of fasting and how one should reflect at the time of death. 4.
Sanstäraka (Santhara)*: This Ägam describes the process of dying by
one's own desire and its glory. 5.
Tandulavaitalikä*: This Ägam describes the state of pregnancy and
provides knowledge about the human body. 6.
Chandra‑Vedhyaka*: This Ägam describes the method of concentrated
meditation (Dhyana) that one should observe through the description of
Radhavedha. 7.
Devendra‑Stava*: This Ägam describes the names, positions, and
residences of Devas (angels) that live in heaven.
It also provides a description of the moon, sun, planets, and
stars. 8.
Ganita Vidyä*: This Ägam describes palmistry and how it is used to
predict the future (Nimitta). 9.
Mahäpratyäkhyäna*: This Ägam explains how to completely give up the
worst sins and how to repent these sins. 10. Veerastava*: This Ägam is considered lost. However, it appears from literature referencing this Ägam that it contained prayers of Lord Mahavir. Note*: These 13 Ang-bähya-Ägams are not recognized by the Sthanakväsi and Terapanthi Jain sect Following is the list of number of Ang-bähya-Ägams recognized as authentic scriptures by different Jain Shwetämbar Sects:
Though
the Digambars contend that the fourteen Ang-bähya Ägams, naturally
different from the twelve Anga Ägams, were composed by Sthavirs, they
also believe that those Ang-bähya Ägams too have become extinct.
The titles of these fourteen Ang-bähya Ägams are: 1. Samayik,
2. Chaturvin-shatistava, 3. Vandana, 4. Pratikraman,
5. Vainayiks, 6. Kritikarma, 7. Dasavaikalik, 8. Uttaradhyayan,
9. Kalpavyavahar, 10 Kalpakalpik,
11. Mahakalpik, 12. Pundarik, 13. Mahapundarik and 14. Nisithik |
| Commentares on the Ägams |
|
The commentaries
on the Ägams have been written in Prakrit and Sanskrit. Those written in Prakrit are known as Niryukti, Bhäsya, and
Churni. Niryuktis and Bhäsyas
are composed in verses while Churnis are in prose. All the extant
(present) Niryuktis have been composed by Bhadrabahu II.
He flourished in the fifth or sixth century V.S.
In his Niryuktis he has conducted philosophical discussions in an
attractive style. He laid the firm foundation of the Jain philosophy by writing
on the subjects of Praman, Naya, and Nikshep. One should study
the Bhäsyas, if one wants to have a complete picture of the full
discussion on any particular subject that had been carried on till the
date of their composition. Among
the authors of the Bhäsyas, Samghadasa-gani and Jinabhadra are famous. They belong to the seventh century. The Churnis that
are available to us belong to the seventh or the eighth century.
Among the authors of the Churnis, Jinadas Mahattar is famous.
The oldest
Sanskrit commentaries on the Ägams are those written by Acharya
Haribhadra. He has been
assigned to the periods between 757 V.S.
and 857 V.S. Haribhadra
had mainly given the Sanskrit version of the Prakrit Churnis.
After Haribhadra,
Silamk-suri wrote Sanskrit commentaries in the tenth century. After
Silamk-suri there flourished the famous Sanskrit commentator
Santya-Acharya. He wrote
Brihat-tika on the Uttaradhyayan. After him, there
flourished the also well known commentator Abhayadev who, living from
1072 to 1134 V.S., wrote Sanskrit commentaries on nine Angas.
Here we should
mention the name of Maladhari Hemachandra who was also a Sanskrit
commentator. He was a
scholar of the twelfth century. However, among
the authors of Sanskrit commentaries on the Ägams, Malayagiri holds the
supreme position. He was a
contemporary of Acharya Hemachandra.
Other scholars
started writing Balavabodha commentaries in contemporary Apabhramsa,
which is a Old Gujarati language. Dharmasimha-muni of 18 century rejects the interpretation given in the old commentaries and gives his own interpretation. However his interpretation fits in well with the tenets of his own sect (Loka-gacha) which had arisen in opposition to idol-worship. |
| Digambar Literature |
|
The
Digambar sect believes that there were 26 Ägam‑sutras (12
Ang-pravishtha-Ägams + 14 Ang‑bähya‑Ägams). However, they were gradually lost starting from one hundred
fifty years after Lord Mahavir's nirväna.
Hence, they do not recognize the existing Ägam-sutras (which are
recognized by the Shwetämbar sects) as their authentic scriptures. In the absence of authentic scriptures, Digambars follow two main texts, three commentaries on main texts, and four Anuyogs consisting of more than 20 texts as the basis for their religious philosophy and practices. These scriptures were written by great Acharyas (scholars) from 100 to 1000 AD. They have used the original Ägam Sutras as the basis for their work. Shakthand Ägam The Shatkhand Ägam is also known as Maha kammapayadi pahuda or Maha karma prabhrut. Two Acharyas; Pushpadant and Bhutabali around 160 AD wrote it. The second Purva Ägam named Agraya niya was used as the basis for this text. The text contains six volumes. Acharya Virsen wrote two commentary texts, known as Dhaval‑tika on the first five volumes and Maha dhaval tika on the sixth volume of this scripture, around 780 AD. Kashay‑pahud or Kashay-prabhrut: Acharya
Gunadhara wrote the Kasay-pahud. The
fifth Purva‑Ägam named Jnan‑pravad was used as a basis for
this scripture. Acharya
Virsen and his disciple, Jinsen, wrote a commentary text known as Jaya‑dhaval‑tika
around 780 AD. List of some
Digambar texts as they are used absence of authentic scriptures:
1.
Pratham
anuyoga (Dharma
katha
anuyoga) - Religious Stories This
anuyoga consists of the following texts, which contain religious
stories, art, literature, history, poetry, and like literature.
2.
Charn‑anuyoga -
Conduct This
anuyoga consists of the following texts, which contain principles of
observances, conduct, behavior, and like literature.
3.
Karan‑anuyoga (Ganit‑anuyog) - Mathematics This
anuyoga expounded the texts, which had mathematical viewpoints.
It consists of the following texts, which contain geography,
mathematics, astronomy, astrology, and like literature.
4.
Dravy‑anuyog - Philosophy This
anuyoga consists of the following texts, which contain philosophical
doctrine, theories, metaphysics, Tattvajnan, and like literature.
|
| Non-Ägam Literature |
|
Jains have tens of
thousands of books which are not considered part of Jain Ägams. These
non-Ägam literature consists of commentary and explanation of Ägam
literature, and independent works, compiled by ascetics and scholars. They
are written in many languages such as Prakrit, Sanskrit, Apabhramsa (old
Gujarati), Old Marathi, Rajasthani, Gujarati, Hindi, Kannad, Tamil,
German, and English. Examples of few
Digambar non-Ägam books are already discussed in the “Digambar
Literature section. Examples of few
Shwetambar non-Ägam books are: Shri Tattvartha Sutra, Shri Sammatitark,
Shri Praman-naya, Shri Syadvadratnakar, Shri visheshavashyakmahabhashya,
Shri Tattvalokalankar, Shri Kammapydi, Shri Dharmapariksha, Shri
Dharmasangrahni, Shri Yogdrashtisamuchchaya, Shri Yogashastra, Shri
Yogbindu, Shri Anekntajayapataka, Shri Shastravartasamuchchaya, Shri
Gyansar, Shri Adhyatmasar, Shri Adhyatmatmapariksha, Shri
Anyayogavyavarchhedika, Shri Shantsudharak, etc. Shri
Tattvarthsutra is considered unanimously the main Jain textbook today by
all Jain sects. In this
chapter, we will give glimpses of Shri Tattvarthasutra, Shri Uttradhdhayan
Sutra, and Shri Samaysar. These
are the three main textbooks used today. |
| TATTVARTHA - SUTRA |
|
Most
of the sacred literature of the Jains is written in Ardhamagadhi language.
This was the public language in those days.
However, the times changed. Sanskrit
became the royal and elite language.
The Jain scholars too started writing their religious and other
texts in Sanskrit. Tattvartha Sutra is the first such Jain text in terse
aphoristic form. It has two
more names: Tattvarth‑adhigama‑sutra (manual for knowledge of
true nature of things or realities) and Moksh‑Shastra (tenets of
salvation). However, it is
popularly known as Tattvartha Sutra. The
name Tattvartha Sutra consists of three Sanskrit words: Tattva (true
nature), artha (things or realities) and sutra (aphorisms of few words).
It may, therefore, be called "Aphoristic Text on the true
nature of realities” This indicates the contents of the text. There
is no definite information about when this text was composed.
However, it is agreed that it must have been composed during the
age of elegant aphorisms. The
early Christian centuries have almost every philosophical or religious
system in the east putting their tenants in short and sweet forms.
Brahmsutra, Yoga‑sutra, Vaisheshika sutra Nyaysutra etc.
represent aphoristic texts of different systems.
Tattvartha Sutra represents aphoristic text of Jain system.
It must have been composed during 200‑400 AD. Acharya Shri
Umaswami's creation of Tattvartha Sutra is the greatest gift to Jains and
is excepted by all sects. Not much is known
about the details of his life. He
was born in a Brahmin family, in the village Nayogradhika.
His father was Swati and his mother was Vasti. He renounced the world under Achrya Goshnandi. According to the inscriptions found by the archeologists he said to be from either the early second century AD. or late first century AD. He said to have
been very learned in various Hindu, Vedic and Buddhist philosophies along
with extensive knowledge of geography, astronomy, philosophy of soul and
life etc. Historians called
him the most knowledgeable in the language of Sanskrit, Jain scholars
recognized him to be the first one to write in Sanskrit. Tattvartha sutra
as described below is the most complete assembly of Jain scriptures and
understandably acceptable to do all sectors of Jains. There is a story
about the original of Tattvartha sutra: There was a
learned scholar of the scriptures named Siddhaya, he once wrote one a
piece of paper "faith, knowledge and conduct is the path to Moksha"
and left his house for some reason. By
chance that day Achrya Shri Umaswami took ahar (alms) at his house and
happened to see that written statement by the scholar Siddhaya and added
the word "right" ahead of his statement to read "right
faith, knowledge, conduct is the path to Moksha".
When Siddhaya returned home he asked his mother who wrote this word
before his sentence. After
learning about Umaswami from his mother he went to the Acharya and asked
about moksha and ways to attain it. The
answers to his questions, is the creation of Tattvartha Sutra. This
text has two versions containing 344‑357 aphorisms. The text
contents are related with the major theoretical and practical aspects of
Jain system. It is a small
text but it describes Jainism excellently. It represents an epitome of Jainism. This
book has ten chapters of uneven length containing the above number of
aphorisms. The subject
content is not new. However,
it has brought together all the earlier scattered material for the first
time in a structured system. It consists of all the necessary fundamentals
of Jainism. It describes
about the realities in the world and their true nature.
Its contents are as appropriate as its name. The
Jain principles have been described here both spiritually and
scientifically. It mentions
that the object of a successful life is to attain ultimate, permanent
inner happiness or salvation. It
can not be fulfilled until we have a three‑fold coordinated path of
right faith, right knowledge and right conduct.
The path can not be followed until we have the right knowledge
about the realities of the world. The
right knowledge could be obtained either by self-intuition or it could be
obtained through listening, reading and analyzing the scriptures with the
help of enlightened souls and spiritual teachers.
It is necessary that the knowledge is very right.
The criteria could be satisfied only when one critically evaluates
our information through different organs of knowledge and viewpoints. This is the same process we apply even today to get useful
knowledge. The
text not only describes the methods of obtaining knowledge about the outer
world, but it also describes how to attain knowledge about the inner
world. This requires purification of the body, the mind and the speech
through austerities and meditation. During
the elaboration, it points out the details of seven types of verbal and
non‑verbal viewpoints and the theory of manifold predictions.
These are the basics for obtaining the right knowledge.
With the right knowledge comes right faith.
With right faith and right knowledge to start with, the right
conduct follows. In
the first chapter itself, the text points out that there are seven
elements to move onto the path of spiritual and physical progress.
The first two are the main elements namely the living (Soul) beings
and the non‑living (pudgal) elements.
The third and the fourth elements relate to the influx of the
karmas to the soul. This process is called ashrav and the bondage of the
karmas to the soul is called bandh. The Karmas are the part of vast
varieties of pudgals in this universe. This bondage of karmas is the cause
of our rebirths, cycle of weal and woes from where we want to move away
permanently. The fifth
element is the means to stop this bondage of karmas is called the stoppage
of karmas, samvar and the sixth is to eradicate the existing bondage of
the karmas through various processes is called shedding off karmas,
nirjara. And, the seventh
element is the freedom of the soul from the bondage of all the karmas is
called liberation, Moksha. Thus, we have seven elements to cure our
worries and weal, once again they are:
(1) Living (2)
Non living
(3) Influx of karmas (4)
Bondage of karmas (5)
Stoppage of karmas (6)
Shedding of karmas (7)
Liberation. Umasvati
must be given credit to arrange these elements in proper order with
respect to the process involved and the principles of human psychology.
The earlier literature shows the numerical and ordinal variations.
Umaswati, thus, systematized the Jain system with a logical
sequence. The
first verse of first chapter is "Samyag darshan jnan charitrani
Moksha margah". This is the nutshell of Jainism in some respect. It
means that right knowledge, right faith and right conduct collectively
only are the path to liberation or Moksha. The next three verses mention
the seven elements. Rest of the first chapter deals with the process of
cognition and details about different types of knowledge. The details
about right conduct is included in chapters eight and nine. The
Second, third and fourth chapters deal with the Soul. The
Fifth chapter deals with the Non‑soul (Ajiva). The
Sixth, seventh and eighth chapters deal with the various types of karmas
and their manifestations and the inflow and the bondage of the karmas. Ninth
chapter describes the stoppage and shedding off the karmas. Tenth
chapter is about the complete liberation of the soul or the Moksha. |
| UTTARADHYANA - SUTRA |
|
There are two
types of scriptural texts for the Jains: 1) primary and 2) secondary or
supplementary. Both contain
the Jain principles and practices, though the primary texts are the most
important ones. The secondary
texts are also important. We will discuss
here about one of the most important secondary scriptural text named
Uttaradhyayana Sutra. Traditionally it is said to contain the last sermons
of Lord Mahavira. Many
scholars presume that the current text seems to be a composite work of
various dates. However, it is
one of the earliest texts equivalent to the primary texts. This text has
various ways of narrating the Jain principles.
They have been illustrated through the parables, the anecdotes, the
episodes and the historical stories.
It contains 36 chapters. Nearly,
a third have the historical stories and the episodes.
Some early chapters contain the parables and the concepts of
Jainism. The variety of methods applied in the text makes the book
highly illustrative and interesting.
The text is now available with the translations in many languages:
German, English, Hindi, Gujarati, etc.
Its first English translation was published as early as in 1895.
It is now available under the sacred books of the east vol. 45.
There are many short and long commentaries on this text beginning since
ninth century AD. With the help of these translations, any person can
read, understand and estimate the value of the book. Let us now turn to
the summary of the content of this important text.
The book tells us that human life is rare and difficult to attain.
However, it is the human life, which leads us to ultimate
happiness. Hence it is necessary to make the best use of the human life.
One must try to enrich it with highest human values and
enlightenment. It allures the
people towards the ascetic life, which may be a life of better internal
happiness. The text tells us
that there are four things, which are rare:
1) Human life
2) Sermons of the
Jinas
3) Right or rational
vision, and
4)
Right conduct of restraints. One must realize
that Mahavira was the highest among the ascetics of his days.
He had many followers with proper faith and understanding.
He inspired many people to his path as a means of the outer and the
inner happiness of the permanent nature.
He also laid stress as an ascetic, the path of detachment, where
one would have to face 22 types of the difficulties. One will have to bear
many hardships of physical and mental nature to transform oneself as true
ascetic. Uttaradhyana Sutra
teaches us many points of ascetic life through the stories of Kapila, Nemi,
Mrugaputra, Sanjaya, Rathnemi, Jaya‑Vjayghosha and many more.
They suggest that good life or ascetic life accrues from the
previous good karma. One must think and act good all the times.
It also tells us that professions should not be taken as the birth
right. They depend upon your training and activity.
This idea has been one of the most progressive one during old days.
A chapter tells us the story of an ascetic who is not given the due
regards by the high caste people. Later on, his sermons yield him the
credit. Mahavira says the asceticism can be cultivated without any
restrictions of the caste and creed.
This is the basis of universality of the religion. The text mentions
that carelessness and indolence is not good.
Too much attachment or indulgence is also bad.
The ambitions and desires of the men are limitless.
They cause dissatisfaction and lead to an unhappy life. One should
practice cultivation of the good qualities, which may moderate the
obstructive attitudes. To get
away from the bad actions and thoughts is the best sacrifice one can have. A good number of
chapters describe the basic tenets of the Jain system.
The practice of these tenets is the milestone of the inner and
outer purification. The Karma
theory is the essence of the Jain system.
The practice of equanimity (Samayik) or meditation has been
described. The theory of colors (Leshya) is one of the most important
psychological principles that reflect one's mind through the colored halo
around the body. The practice
of meditation improves the mind and therefore the color. There are six types of such leshyas. The Jainism is an
action-oriented religion. However, the action bears the result only when
performed with meticulous care without lapses of omission and commission. The last chapter
is very important for us. It
gives us the details about the living and non‑living world.
It deals with the physics, chemistry, botany and zoology.
The non‑violence has been described in chapters dealing with
the different qualities and vows of the ascetics. |
| SHRI SAMAYSAR |
|
Shri Samaysar was
written by Acharya Shri Kundakunda Swami around 100 AD.
About 1100 years back, in the 10th century, Shri Amarut
Chandra Acharya Dev wrote critics on Samaysar.
It is called Atmakhyati. Shri
Jaysen Acharya also wrote critiques in Sanskrit language.
In this century, Shri Kanji Swami gave detailed analysis on
Samaysar in a lecture series in Gujarati, which is an easily
understandable language for any lay person.
Nowadays Samaysar is translated into many languages including
Sanskrit, Gujarati, Hindi, Kannad, English, etc.
This text mainly explains the Jain philosophical doctrine of soul.
It explains all the 9 reals in an absolute point of view.
It insists that the soul’s bondages are not due to karma but to
his own weaknesses in effort making (parushartha).
Liberation of soul will occur once he makes his own efforts.
The scriptures and the enlightened preceptors are only to guide the
soul in the right direction. Shri
Kundakunda Swami said that for time immortal, the soul has forgotten
himself, he forgot his own true nature.
Acharya Shri exposed this fact and shown the real path of salvation
by understanding the philosophy of soul.
He showed uniqueness of soul from other substances and their modes.
Importance of right faith is stressed in greater detail.
The text maintains that the right faith is the first step towards
salvation. The vows,
penances, worship, prayer, etc. of the right conduct follows the right
faith. It stresses that one
must forgo wrong belief first to start religious progress.
From an absolute point of view, the soul is pure, but only from the
practical point of view, karma are attached to the soul by principal
cause-auxiliary cause relationship. The
main attribute of the soul is knowledge, which can be experienced by any
living being, and it is given great importance in this book.
This book has 415
aphorisms and it is divided into 9 chapters.
They are as follows: 1.
Living and non-living 2.
Agent and his action 3.
Good deeds and bad deeds 4.
Inflow of karma 5.
Stoppage of karma 6.
Shedding of karma 7.
Bondage 8.
Liberation 9.
Total and pure knowledge If one can
understand this text, which is mainly written from an absolute point of
view, then his understanding of soul’s true nature widens.
He will thereafter believe that ultimately the good deeds and bad
deeds both are to be given up to obtain right faith and ultimately the
salvation. The ultimate goal
is the purification of the soul and by remaining in his own innate form.
To achieve this goal, one has to use these instruments such as
penances, vows, prayers, etc, which are not to be considered as total
fulfillment. |
| SUMMARY |
|
The
Jain literature, which was compiled by Ganadharas and Srut-kevlis, is
known as Ägam literature. These
texts are the Holy Scriptures of the Jain religion. The Jain Ägams
consisted of 1) 14 Purvas, 2) 12 Ang-pravishtha-Ägams and 3) Ang-bähya-Ägams
(34 for Shwetämbar murtipujak, 21 for Shwetämbar Sthanakväsi and 14 for
Digambar). All
sects agree that 14 Purvas and Drastiväd, 12th Ang-pravishtha-Ägams
are extinct. Digambars believe all Jain Ägams are extinct. While Shwetämbar
sects accepts the existing Jain Ägams as authentic teachings of Lord
Mahavir. However, Shwetämbar murtipujak believe there are 34 Ang-bähya-Ägams
existing. while Shwetämbar Sthanakväsi believe there are 21 Ang-bähya-Ägams
are existing. The
composition of scripture has a specific purpose of showing the listener
the path of everlasting happiness and liberation.
The Ägam Sutras teach the eternal truth about conduct, equanimity,
universal affection and friendship, and the eternal truths on thinking,
namely, the principle of relativity, principle of non-one-sided-ness and
many spiritual things including great reverence for all forms of life,
soul, karma, universe, strict codes of asceticism, rules for householders,
compassion, nonviolence, non-possessiveness. Jains
believe that Ang-Ägams were at all times in the past, are in the present,
and will be at all times in the future. They are eternal, firm, permanent,
non-destructive, non-decaying and everlasting. |
|
Refrences “The Jain Ägams” by Shri Dalsukh Malvania & Translated by Dr. Nagin Shah“Jain Ägam Literature” compiled
by Pravin K. Shah, Jain Study Center of NC (Raleigh)
|